Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
- Understand the four basic forces that underlie the processes in nature
The information presented in this section supports the following AP® learning objectives and science practices:
- 3.C.4.1 The student is able to make claims about various contact forces between objects based on the microscopic cause of those forces. (S.P. 6.1)
- 3.C.4.2 The student is able to explain contact forces (tension, friction, normal, buoyant, spring) as arising from interatomic electric forces and that they therefore have certain directions. (S.P. 6.2)
- 3.G.1.1 The student is able to articulate situations when the gravitational force is the dominant force and when the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces can be ignored. (S.P. 7.1)
One of the most remarkable simplifications in physics is that only four distinct forces account for all known phenomena. In fact, nearly all of the forces we experience directly are due to only one basic force, called the electromagnetic force. The gravitational force is the only force we experience directly that is not electromagnetic. This is a tremendous simplification of the myriad different forces we can list, only a few of which were discussed in the previous section. As we will see, the basic forces are all thought to act through the exchange of microscopic carrier particles, and the characteristics of the basic forces are determined by the types of particles exchanged. Action at a distance, such as the gravitational force of Earth on the Moon, is explained by the existence of a force field rather than by physical contact.
The four basic forces are the gravitational force, the electromagnetic force, the weak nuclear force, and the strong nuclear force. Their properties are summarized in Table 4.2. Since the weak and strong nuclear forces act over an extremely short range, the size of a nucleus or less, we do not experience them directly, although they are crucial to the very structure of matter. These forces determine which nuclei are stable and which decay, and they are the basis of the release of energy in certain nuclear reactions. Nuclear forces determine not only the stability of nuclei, but also the relative abundance of elements in nature. The properties of the nucleus of an atom determine the number of electrons it has and, thus, indirectly determine the chemistry of the atom. More will be said of all of these topics in later chapters.
Concept Connections: The Four Basic Forces
The four basic forces will be encountered in more detail as you progress through the text. The gravitational force is defined in Uniform Circular Motion and Gravitation, electric force in AP Physics 2 in Electric Charge and Electric Field, magnetic force in Magnetism, and nuclear forces in Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics. On a macroscopic scale, electromagnetism and gravity are the basis for all forces. The nuclear forces are vital to the substructure of matter, but they are not directly experienced on the macroscopic scale.
Force | Approximate Relative Strengths | Range | Attraction/Repulsion | Carrier Particle |
---|---|---|---|---|
Gravitational | Attractive only | Graviton | ||
Electromagnetic | Attractive and repulsive | Photon | ||
Weak nuclear | < | Attractive and repulsive | , , | |
Strong nuclear | < | Attractive and repulsive | gluons |
The gravitational force is surprisingly weak—it is only because gravity is always attractive that we notice it at all. Our weight is the gravitational force due to the entire Earth acting on us. On the very large scale, as in astronomical systems, the gravitational force is the dominant force determining the motions of moons, planets, stars, and galaxies. The gravitational force also affects the nature of space and time. As we shall see later in the study of general relativity, space is curved in the vicinity of very massive bodies, such as the Sun, and time actually slows down near massive bodies.
Take a good look at the ranges for the four fundamental forces listed in Table 4.2. The range of the strong nuclear force, 10−15 m, is approximately the size of the nucleus of an atom; the weak nuclear force has an even shorter range. At scales on the order of 10−10 m, approximately the size of an atom, both nuclear forces are completely dominated by the electromagnetic force. Notice that this scale is still utterly tiny compared to our everyday experience. At scales that we do experience daily, electromagnetism tends to be negligible, due to its attractive and repulsive properties canceling each other out. That leaves gravity, which is usually the strongest of the forces at scales above approximately 10−4 m, and hence includes our everyday activities, such as throwing, climbing stairs, and walking.
Electromagnetic forces can be either attractive or repulsive. They are long-range forces, which act over extremely large distances, and they nearly cancel for macroscopic objects. Remember that it is the net external force that is important. If they did not cancel, electromagnetic forces would completely overwhelm the gravitational force. The electromagnetic force is a combination of electrical forces such as those that cause static electricity, and magnetic forces, such as those that affect a compass needle. These two forces were thought to be quite distinct until early in the nineteenth century, when scientists began to discover that they are different manifestations of the same force. This discovery is a classical case of the unification of forces. Similarly, friction, tension, and all of the other classes of forces we experience directly (except gravity, of course) are due to electromagnetic interactions of atoms and molecules. It is still convenient to consider these forces separately in specific applications, however, because of the ways they manifest themselves.
Concept Connections: Unifying Forces
Attempts to unify the four basic forces are discussed in relation to elementary particles later in this text. By unify we mean finding connections between the forces that show that they are different manifestations of a single force. Even if such unification is achieved, the forces will retain their separate characteristics on the macroscopic scale and may be identical only under extreme conditions such as those existing in the early universe.
Physicists are now exploring whether the four basic forces are in some way related. Attempts to unify all forces into one come under the rubric of Grand Unified Theories (GUTs), with which there has been some success in recent years. It is now known that under conditions of extremely high density and temperature, such as existed in the early universe, the electromagnetic and weak nuclear forces are indistinguishable. They can now be considered to be different manifestations of one force, called the electroweak force. So the list of four has been reduced in a sense to only three. Further progress in unifying all forces is proving difficult—especially the inclusion of the gravitational force, which has the special characteristics of affecting the space and time in which the other forces exist.
While the unification of forces will not affect how we discuss forces in this text, it is fascinating that such underlying simplicity exists in the face of the overt complexity of the universe. There is no reason that nature must be simple—it simply is.